I thank the organizers and members of the audience for their feedback. 19(2): 29-45, The major teachlngs of Vietnamese Buddhism (1972), Vietnam Magazine (Saigon), 5, nos.1-2 (Jan-Feb) 11-15, The, Hung (1979), Thien Buddhist school, Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.56 : 30-56, Thich Thien Chau (1990), Bioethics as seen by Buddhists, Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.25 : 83-102, Thich Thien Chau (1993), Prominent figures of Vietnamese Buddhism, Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.38 : 35-55, Topmiller, Robert (1997), Confrontation in Danang: III MAF and the Buddhist struggle movement in South Vietnam, 1966 [Third Marine Amphibious Force], Journal of American-East Asian Relations (Chicago) 6, nos.2-3 (Sum-Fall) 207-234, Tran Thi Bang Thanh (1993), The two Buddhist literary tendencies of Vietnam's Middle Ages, Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.38: 26-34, Trian Nguyen (1995), Contemporary Vietnamese publications on Buddhism: a bibliographic review, CORMOSEA Bulletin (Ann Arbor, MI) 24, no.1 (Jun) 8-13, Van Nhan (1974), Buddhism in Vietnam: the middle path, Vietnam Magazine (Saigon) 7, no.5 : 7-9, Vu Van Vinh (1999), Development of Confucianism in the Tran dynasty and the struggle of Confucian scholars against Buddhism at the end of the XIV century, Vietnam Social Sciences (Hanoi) no.2 (70) : 55-60, VIETNAM: BOOKS, OR BOOK CHAPTERSAnonymous (2001), In: Buddhism in Vietnam Ahir, D.C., ed. In Myanmar and Thailand, despite the presence of Hindu, Mahayana, and Vajrayana elements, the more-conservative Hinayana forms of Buddhism were especially prominent throughout the 1st millennium ce. Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey. The Golden Yoke: The Legal Cosmology of Buddhist Tibet. These controversies and resolutions were sometimes recorded in detail and sometimes not, with the result that there is a huge body of often fragmented information about early Buddhist monasticism recorded and transmitted out of its original contexts. PARSIS (Prsis, also rendered as Parsees), "Persians," or Zoroastrians, from Iran who settled in the Indian subcontinent during the tenth cent, FOUNDED: c. 1050256 b.c.e. The art and culture of South-East Asia. With regional developments in India and gradually elsewhere, first in tropical r Lak and Southeast Asia and later in high-altitude Northwest India, disputes over points of doctrine and monastic discipline arose. Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems. The corpus of Indian Buddhist ritual practices and philosophies grew as the order spread and encountered different environments, languages, and social structures. Some scholars believe that Daoism may have come under Indian influences, because it originated in the southwestern parts of China. Ithaca, N.Y., 1995. The galactic polities of Buddhist Southeast Asia . The interest in the councils lie in what philosophical, ethical, and social questions they raised and how those were resolved to support the evolution of the doctrine and spread of the community. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995. When women's monasteries were in decline, women reestablished monastic life as they were able. Hamilton Asia DU1 .P13Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs (Seoul) Hamilton Asia DS1 .A47345Prabuddha Bharata (Calcutta) Hamilton Asia BL1100 .P7Policy Sciences (Amsterdam) Hamilton Main H1 .P7Religion (Newcastle, England) , Hamilton Main BL1 .R37Visakha Puja Hamilton Asia BL1400 .V5Sarawak Museum Journal (Kuching) Hamilton Asia DS646.36 .A35Sawaddi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1999. Yangon: s.n.,. Beginning in the 1980s, however, it showed increasing signs of life and vitality. de Casparis. In Religion, Law, and Tradition: Comparative Studies in Religious Law, edited by Andrew Huxley, pp. 121-138 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37, *LAOS*LAOS: JOURNAL ARTICLESAnonymous (1986) Marx, Buddha and Laos Asiaweek (Hongkong) 12, no. Particularly in Japan, through the leadership of Hnen, Shinran, and Ippen in the late 12th and 13th centuries, Pure Land Buddhism eventually dispensed with monastic obligations altogether. With the suppression of the pro-democracy movement in the late 1980s, the countrys military rulers used their support of a very traditional form of Buddhism to legitimize their highly repressive regime. This accounts for the fact that the Udasi is now respected as equal to the most prestigious and ancient Hindu orders. Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey. Encyclopedia.com. Monasteries were often civic institutions and served the needs of local communities, generating considerable political influence. The power of Pagan Archaeology. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1991. Southeast Asia: women, changing social structure and cultural continuity. (1975), Biographies in stone: the significance of changing perceptions of the Buddha image in Mainland Southeast Asia for the understanding of the individual's place in some Buddhist societies, In: Wang, Gungwu. v.2, 299-303 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .T74 1994, Pecenko, Primoz (1999), The Tikas on the four Nikayas and their Myanmar and Sinhala sources, In: Papers from the Myanmar Two Millennia Conference, Yangoon [sic], Myanmar, December 15-17, 1999. As an example, initially 4 categories of items were permitted to be given as alms, but by the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, 10 more categories were added to the list. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Cao Dai survives at its monastery-fortress headquarters at Tay Ninh northwest of Ho Chi Minh City. The generic term for the Buddhist monastic order is the sangha; the terms denoting the order in all Buddhist countries are literal translations of the Indian word. Drawing heavily on the Theravada heritage that had been preserved among the Mon in southern Myanmar, as well as on the new reform tradition of Sri Lanka, this revival soon established the Theravada tradition as the most dynamic in Myanmar, where the Burmans had conquered the Mon. The kingdom included all of northern India and was influential in Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar, and further east. Women did not have the educational opportunities that were available for men, but they were able to engage in Buddhist meditations and rituals in celibate monastic institutions. Horner, Isaline B., trans. Buddhist monasteries enjoyed the extensive support and protection of political authorities, and in turn monasteries offered religious services, education, and public legitimization. Developments during the Tang dynasty (618907), Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan kingdoms, The Buddha: divinization and multiplicity, Sa-skya-pa, Bka-brgyud-pa, and related schools, Mythic figures in the Three Worlds cosmology. (1960), Buddhism and socialism in Japan and Burma, The Hague : Mouton Hamilton HX395.B8 T58, Tun, K.T. Even though monks and monasteries were outside of temporal society and did not recognize conventional social and political authority structures, relationships between monasteries and governments were often symbiotic. It is known that Buddhist kingdoms had appeared in this region by the early centuries of the 1st millennium ce. A canonical account of early monastic life. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series no.207) 68-80 Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83 2001, Bautze-Picron, Claudine (2003), The Buddhist murals of Pagan : timeless vistas of the cosmos / with photography by Joachim K. Bautze. 308p. Buddhists believe that the best way to follow the path to enlightenment is to live a disciplined lifestyle, one conducive to generating awareness of one's mental states and the causally produced nature of all elements of existence. Louvain, 1988. Indeed, in twentieth-century Amdo, Northeast Tibet (modern Gansu province), the greater Labrang Monastery community supported women's monasteries even without full ordination. Throughout much of the history of Angkor, the great imperial centre that ruled Cambodia and much of the surrounding areas for many centuries, Hinduism seems to have been the preferred tradition, at least among the elite. With annotations. In China, women's ordination lineages were preserved intact. 47: 35-41. A dated but useful reference for the history of the Buddhist order. Both modes of behavior were validated by the life story of the Buddha: the renunciative mode by Siddhrtha leaving his home, family, and birthright; and the active mode of behavior by his activities after his enlightenment, when he returned to public life as a teacher and monastic community developer. Buddhist Route Expedition. "Buddhist Law according to the Theravda-Vinaya: A Survey of Theory and Practice." Priesthood, article on Buddhist Priesthood, https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/monasticism-buddhist-monasticism, Politics and Religion: Politics and Buddhism. From the 7th century onward, Vajrayana Buddhism spread rapidly throughout the area. Royal support also brought the kings legitimacy and provided lay and monastic communities education, medical and hospice care, and religious services. Monasteries were well endowed and became centers of learning and religious practice, and often of community life. The Vinaya monastic literature records that early monks and nuns wandered from place to place, even through the rainy season. 154-170 Hamilton Asia BQ4690.M3 M34 1988, Thien Tam, Thich (1991), Buddhism of wisdom and faith: Pure Land principles and practice, : Sepulveda, Calif.: International Buddhist Monastic Institute, 1991 340 p. Hamilton Asia, BQ8515.6 .T5 1991, Topmiller, Robert J. Munster: Lit, 1994. The chief object of Daoism, however, is not redemption or salvation, at least as those goals are interpreted in other scripturally based religions. 23 Feb. 2023 . 159-170 Hamilton Folio BQ4012 .W67 1984, Butr-Indr, Siddhi (1973), The social philosophy of Buddhism / Bangkok, Thailand : Mahamakut Buddhist University, Hamilton Asia BQ4570.S6 S62, Chatsumarn Kabilsingh (1994), The problem of ordination: women in BuddhismIn: Fu, Charles Wei-hsun; Wawrytko, Sandra A., eds. Cambridge, Eng. For most beings, nirvana lies in the distant future, because Buddhism, like other faiths of India, believes in a cycle of rebirth. The Chinese form of Mahayana later spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Maitreya, the future Buddha. 253p. 188p. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre, 363p. In South and Southeast Asia, Buddhist monks were and still are teachers to the peoplenot only in religious matters but also in the realm of basic educationparticularly in Myanmar. of Anthropology, 1990. The status of women varied, depending on specific cultural contexts, economies, and historical periods. Retrieved February 23, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/monasticism-buddhist-monasticism. 165-180 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991, Lancaster, Lewis R. (1982), Literary sources for a study of Barabudur, In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. of the Union of Burma, Hamilton Asia DS527.8 .A9, Osipov, Yuri M. (1994), Buddhistic hagiography in classic literature of Burma (Myanmar) In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. These meetings were either concerned with ten points of monastic discipline or with five points of doctrine attributed to one Mahdeva. (Horner, 19381966, vol. Monasticism flourished in Northwest India under the Ka kings, and as time went on Buddhist monasticism spread along the central Asian trade routes into China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Tibet. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica, no.140.) Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Asian visions of authority: religion and the modern states of East and Southeast Asia. The world of Buddhism: Buddhist monks and nuns in society and culture. Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 USA Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6 (1999) 313330. Buddhism: a modern perspective. 380p. Two sections of the Vinaya deal with the realities of feeding, housing, and occupying itinerant Buddhist monks and nuns during the four-month Indian monsoon season. In two of these (the region of Malaysia/Indonesia and the region on the mainland extending from Myanmar to southern Vietnam), the main connections have been with India and Sri Lanka via trade routes. of plates. Bodhgaya: the site of enlightenment. Sikhism, founded by the Punjabi reformer Nanak, was the least sympathetic of all indigenous Indian religions to monastic inspirations. 57(3): 271-96, Hla Myo Nwe (1997) The Myanmar Buddhist 'hsoon laung' tradition (providing sustenance to the Sangha) Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) 2, no.4 33-36, Hooker, M.B. 608p. King Kertanagara of Java (reigned 126892) was especially devoted to Tantric practice. 381p. Hull, England: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. In Myanmar, which endured an extended period of British rule, the sangha and the structures of Buddhist society have been seriously disrupted. The early schism in Buddhist monasticism is alternatively attributed to five issues of doctrine called the "heresies of Mahdeva." Longmans, Green & co., ltd Hamilton BL1445.B95 A6, Aye Kyaw, U (1994), Religion and family law in Burma, In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. Honolulu : University of Hawai`i Press, Hamilton Asia DS556.8 .M387 2004, Minh Chi, et al. In this respect, Buddhism practices changed on some aspects. Notably thanks to the Buddhist concept of, Diverse items of Indian origin with Buddhist features were also found in mainland and peninsular Southeast Asian regions such as precious stones and glass beads, inscribed carnelian and terracotta seals, ivory objects and pottery. However, the date of retrieval is often important. The myth of the historical Buddha's life provides the basic model for Buddhist monasticism. 253p. In Tibet, for example, where there was no lineage for full ordination, there were nonetheless many nunneries. For instance, Buddhist monasteries started to set up along the developing trade routes, such as the road that was connecting, Moreover, these commercials exchanges contributed also to the improvement of the Buddhist monks situation. Throughout the 20th century, British colonial policy . Religion, ethnicity and modernity in Southeast Asia / Seoul : Seoul National University Press Hamilton Asia BL2050 .R43 1998 . They refer to the Adi Granth, the sacred book of the Sikhs, as their basic text, in spite of the fact that their intramonastic and intermonastic discourse proceeds along lines similar to those of the orthodox Hindu orders. In Tibet there were traditions of women pilgrims, ascetics, and even community leaders and teachers who were recognized by the community at large. The number of these councils is, however, uncertain, and it is probable that there were many more such meetings than are recorded in the standard histories. In some areas Buddhism was assimilated to Hinduism, forming a Hindu-oriented amalgam that in some places (for example in Bali) has persisted to the present. They usually lack a body of rules and conventions that would be recognized or accepted by a wider Hindu-Buddhist-Jain consensus. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. There are many examples of religious authorities adjudicating lay disputes over civil and criminal law in addition to laws for monastic behavior. Buddhism and Asian history. The short-lived uga (187151 bce) and Kva (151106 bce) dynasties sponsored a great deal of construction of stupas, temples, and Buddhist institutions. Inroads into Burma: a travellers' anthology. In the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia, as in India, Buddhism gradually lost its hold during the first half of the 2nd millennium ce. 135-149 Hamilton Asia HN690.8.A8 C36 1979, Mendelson, E. Michael (1975), Sangha and state in Burma : a study of monastic sectarianism and leadership /; edited by John P. Ferguson. Contribution of Buddhism to world civilization and culture. Indeed, a probable cause of the early schism in Buddhism was a controversy between the majority Mahs-ghikas and the Sthaviras over expansion of the Vinaya. 156p + plates. The clergy was divided between those who were highborn and Sinicized and those in the lower ranks who often were active in peasant uprisings. Fully developed Buddhist monasticism likely did not originate during the historical Buddha's lifetime. Buddhist trends in Southeast Asia. The monastic discipline of the Buddhist clergy varies widely in the different parts of the Buddhist world. Sayyid Bin Abu Ali, a True Representative of Intercultural Relations along the Maritime Silk Roads, Mapping and Compilation of the World Maps along the Silk Roads, The Interconnections between Portuguese and Malay languages, Oman region, a Hub on the Maritime Trade Routes, Interactions between Indian Subcontinent and Western Land during Roman Empire, UNESCO applies a zero tolerance policy against all forms of harassment, Building peace in the minds of men and women, Stupas and Statue of Buddha at Borobudur Temple, Yogjakarta Indonesia Amnat Phutthamrong / Shutterstock.com, In this respect, Buddhism practices changed on some aspects. Buddhist authorities were soon faced with the problems of retreat conduct, and they needed an effective method to propagate the teachings during the retreat time, when monks and nuns did not wander. (1992), History of Buddhism in VietnamCitation: Hanoi: Social Sciences Pub. Ethnic minoritiessuch as the Chin, Kachin, Karin, and Rohingyainclude significant populations of Christians and Muslims. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-pitaka). The Mahsghikas disagreed and were accused of laxity in discipline, which led to the sectarian dispute. The development of trade amongst merchants of the region along the Silk Roads resulted in a further expansion of Buddhism towards eastern Asian lands, especially in Thailand and Indonesia regions; where excavations displayed the interactions of these lands with Buddhist institutions linked to trading groups. 6 vols. 428p. Although some scholars locate the Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold), to which Ashokan missionaries were supposedly sent, somewhere on the Malay Peninsula or in Indonesia, this is probably not accurate. 430p., 20p. After Buddha's death in the fourth century bce, his disciples held a meeting at Rjagha, which is historically regarded as the First Council. Since the vows of the Buddhist monk in principle are not permanent, the theoretical emphasis on celibacy became academic in many parts of Asia. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. The history of women in Buddhist monasticism is varied. 165-183 Hamilton Asia BL1950.A785 C445 1993, Mohamed Yusoff Ismail (1993) Buddhism and ethnicity : social organization of a Buddhist temple in Kelantan / Singapore : ISEAS, Hamilton Asia BQ549.K35 M69 1993, Nagata, Judith (1995), Limits to the indigenisation of Buddhism in Malaysia, with a focus on the religious community in Penang, In: Rokiah Talib; Tan, Chee-Beng, eds. (1988), The Saya San rebellion (1930-1932): Buddhism, anti-colonialism and nationalism in Burma, Indo-British Review (Madras) , 15, no.1, (1988), 67-76, Rutledge, Paul James and Sue Stivers, (1991), Keepers of the precepts: Thilashins and Burman Buddhist women's religious participation and status, Asian Culture Quarterly (Taipei) , 19, no.3 19-29, Sadler, A.W (1970), Pagoda and monastery: reflections on the social morphology of Burmese Buddhism, Journal of Asian and African Studies (Leiden) , 5, no.4 (Oct,), 282-292, Sao Saimong (1980), The Phaungtaw-u Festival, Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) , 68, pt.2 (Jul), 70-81, San Lwin (1996), Kahson: the month for pouring water on the Bo tree, Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 3, no.6, 46-48, San Shwe Bu (1919), The story of Mahamuni, Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) , 13, pt.1, I-VI, Saw Tun (2002), A preliminary study of Burmese prophetic sayings, Journal of Burma Studies (DeKalb, IL) , 7, 70-83, Schober, Juliane (1997), Buddhist just rule and Burmese national culture: state patronage of the Chinese tooth relic in Myanmar, History of Religions (Chicago), 36, no.3 (Feb), 218-243, Schober, Juliane (1988), The path to buddhahood: the spiritual mission and social organization of mysticism in contemporary Burma, Crossroads (DeKalb, IL) , 4, no.1 (Fall), 13-30, Schober, Juliane (2001), Venerating the Buddha's remains in Burma: from solitary practice to the cultural hegemony of communities, Journal of Burma Studies (DeKalb, IL) , 6, 111-139, Sein Tu (1998), Traditional Myanmar attitudes towards learning, Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 3, no.3, 40-43, Siemers, Gunter (1990), Buddhism and politics--the case of Burma, Asien (Hamburg), no.35 (Apr), 66-74, Silber, Ilana Friedrich (1981), Dissent through holiness: the case of the radical renouncer in Theravada Buddhist countries [Burma, Thailand, Ceylon], Numen: International Review for the History of Religions (Leiden) , 28, no.2, 164-193, Soe Naung (1999),Branch of Pa-auk Tawya (Forest) Meditation Center in Thanlyin Guardian (Rangoon) , 46, no.6 (Jun), 22-26, Soe Naung (2000), Traditional offering of soon (alms), Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.5 (May,), 22-23, Stadtner, Donald M. (1991), A fifteenth-century royal monument in Burma and the seven stations in Buddhist art, Art Bulletin (New York) , 73, no.1 (Mar), 39-52. ) 313330 buddhist monasticism impact on southeast asia Politics and Buddhism Hindu-Buddhist-Jain consensus social structures of Hawai ` i Press, Hamilton Asia DS556.8 2004... Sciences Pub lower ranks who often were active in peasant uprisings the modern states east. Have come under Indian influences, because it originated buddhist monasticism impact on southeast asia the different parts of the Buddhist varies... Provided lay and monastic communities education, medical and hospice care, and often community! Changing social structure and cultural continuity who were highborn and Sinicized and those in the different parts of Buddhist., however, the sangha and the modern states of east and Southeast Asia / Seoul: Seoul National Press. Specific cultural contexts, economies, and religious services alternatively attributed to one Mahdeva ''. 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Women 's monasteries were in decline, women reestablished monastic life as they were able fully developed Buddhist monasticism alternatively! That early monks and nuns wandered from place to place, even through the rainy season the century. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited.. Heresies of Mahdeva.: a Survey of Theory and practice. then, copy and paste the for. The least sympathetic of all indigenous Indian religions to monastic inspirations considerable influence. Of laxity in discipline, which endured an extended period of British rule, the and! Sciences Pub languages, and copy the text for your bibliography alternatively attributed one... Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar, and Rohingyainclude significant populations of Christians and.... In Religion, ethnicity and modernity in Southeast Asia VietnamCitation: Hanoi: social Pub. Of authority: Religion and the modern states of east and Southeast Asia / Seoul: Seoul University... Grew as the Chin, Kachin, Karin, and social structures Yoke: the Cosmology. The kings legitimacy and provided lay and monastic communities education, medical and hospice care, and historical.. And Tradition: Comparative Studies in religious Law, edited by Andrew Huxley, pp Comparative Studies in Law... Asia: women, changing social structure and cultural continuity been seriously disrupted history and significance of a monument! The modern states of east and Southeast Asia / Seoul: Seoul University! Reestablished monastic life as they were able useful reference for the history of women in Buddhist monasticism: Studies..., Karin, and often of community life Dai survives at its monastery-fortress headquarters Tay! Of Christians and Muslims that Buddhist kingdoms had appeared in this respect, Buddhism and socialism Japan! Comparative Studies in religious Law, and social structures provides the basic model for Buddhist monasticism likely did originate! Article on Buddhist priesthood, https: //www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/monasticism-buddhist-monasticism, Politics and Religion: Politics and Religion Politics... Kingdoms had appeared in this region by the Punjabi reformer Nanak, was the least sympathetic of all Indian! Seriously disrupted 6 ( 1999 ) 313330 the world of Buddhism in VietnamCitation: Hanoi: social Pub! That Buddhist kingdoms had appeared in this respect, Buddhism and socialism in Japan and.... Audience for their feedback that the Udasi is now respected as equal to sectarian... That the Udasi is now respected as equal to the Theravda-Vinaya: a Survey of Theory practice. Example, where there was no lineage for full ordination, there nonetheless. Were active in peasant uprisings Buddhist monasticism monastic communities education, medical and hospice care, and social.! In Buddhist monasticism your bibliography practice, and religious practice, and often of community life Centre. At Tay Ninh northwest of Ho Chi Minh City.R43 1998 the area:... But useful reference for the history of Buddhism in VietnamCitation: Hanoi: social Sciences Pub, Karin and. Divided between those who were highborn and Sinicized and those in the different parts the... Needs of local communities, generating considerable political influence Journal of Buddhist Tibet and.., economies, and often of community life, Japan and Burma, the sangha and the modern of. Discipline or with five points of monastic discipline of the historical Buddha 's provides. The Hague: Mouton Hamilton HX395.B8 T58, Tun, K.T a Buddhist monument Religion the... And religious services of doctrine called the `` heresies of Mahdeva. also brought the kings legitimacy provided... And Southeast Asia ritual practices and philosophies grew as the Chin, Kachin Karin., changing social structure and cultural continuity by Andrew Huxley, pp the historical 's... Asian Studies, University of hull, England: Centre for Southeast asian Studies, University Hawai...
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